Effective reading materials must be appealing, i. e. they must appeal to the intended readers. Such books must supply what readers want: the following are the indices of appeal in a book: adequate illustrations, i. e. they should be well printed. You can read more related posts on our research page of the site. This article examines the Harvard Style.
Multiple sources by the same author
Suppose more than one book and article by the same author are being cited. In that case, they are distinguished by the inclusion of the date of publication of the particular source in the footnote or parenthetical note. See examples below for a footnote and a parenthetical note, respectively.
Wheeler, D. K. 1983p. 37
(Wheeler, D. K. 1983, p. 37)
Note that both techniques of referencing should not be used simultaneously.
Question skills
This is the verbatim production of someone else’s words, statements or views. Inverted commas ‘open’ and ‘close’ should be used for statements not more than three typewritten lines. A long quotation of more than three typed lines is usually indented (one-half inch from both margins, single-spaced). An example is shown below.
Bello (1990) states that the worst mistakes are those that interfere most with comprehension and communication, while unimportant mistakes do not greatly interfere with communication (p.4)
A Long Passage
In a situation where the passage to be quoted is long, omissions from such a quotation are allowed, provided the omitted section is not too long to distort the passage’s content. The kind of omission is indicated by three dots (…). The use of the three dots, signifying that some words or even sentences have been omitted, can be used more than once in a passage. Below is an example:
Corder (1973) highlights the necessity for error analysis and the benefits that can be derived from such efforts. According to him:
Errors provide feedback, they tell the teacher something about the effectiveness of his teaching materials… what parts of the syllabus he has been following have been inadequately learned or taught and need further attention… This is the day value of errors… they provide the information for designing a remedial syllabus or a programme on re-teaching (p. 265).
Subsequent referencing at the end of a chapter
Source (books and journals) cited in a chapter may be acknowledged at the end of the chapter. Some writers prefer this to both the parenthetical note and footnote. However, this does not replace the bibliography, which is the list of all sources referred to in the complete write-up. According to Nnadi (1991), the following rules are to be followed:
1. Idem (abbreviated as Id) means the same work and the same page, without entering the page number again.
Example:
(a) Raymond Baker, (1965) “Marketing in Nigeria” Journal of Marketing,
June of. 4 No. 29pp. 40-42
(b). Id
2. Use Ibidem (Ibid. for short) when the referencing is in the same work but different page number, eg.
(a) Id
(b) Ibid p. 47
3. When there are intervening references and the same work referenced earlier needs to be referred to again, the Latin expression ‘Opere citato’ (op. cit for short) is used, and this means in the work already cited.
(a) Raymond Barker, (1965) “Marketing In Nigeria”
Journal of Marketing
June Vol. 3 No. 27pp. 40-45
(b) Id
(c) Ibid, p. 47
(d) Rensis Likert, (1961)
New York: McGraw-Hill), p. 70
(e) Raymond Baker, op cit. P. 42
Bibliography
The Advanced Learners’ Dictionary defines a Bibliography as “a list of all writings used in the preparation of a book or article, usually appearing at the end.” Sources which have been referred to in the body of the write-up and may or may not have been noted in the Parenthetical note, footnotes, or the end-of-chapter references are pooled together (in detail) in the bibliography.
All sources referenced are arranged in this order: Journals, books, magazines, newspapers and other publications.
The Bibliography is arranged in alphabetical order (names of authors’ surnames first). However, in a situation where a book is authored by more than one person, it is only the surname of the first author that comes first, while the first names of the co-authors come first. By this, it is only the surname of the first author that is affected by the alphabetical arrangement. The Bibliography is not numbered.
Procedure for Bibliography Writing (Harvard Style)
- The surname and initials of the author(s).
- The publication date is put in brackets immediately after (i) above.
- The full title of the book or title: Titles of the books are underlined, while those of articles are not. The name of the journal follows, and it is highlighted. The volume is emphasised while the number is in the bracket.
- In the case of a book, the place of publication is written, followed by the publisher. Below are two examples for a book and a journal, respectively.
(a) Wheeler D. K. (983) Curriculum Process. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
(b) Hang, P. (1980) Methods of Training of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. English Language Teaching Journal, xxix (2)
The above procedure can be modified to suit the sources of reference, number of authors, etc. Below are some forms:
1. Different sources by one author
The name of the author will be written in the first instance only. In subsequent reference, a dash (-) takes the place of the name, while the year of publication and the other details follow. (see below)
Finochiaro, M. (1969). Teaching English as a Second Language. New York: Row Publishers
(1975) Visual Aids in Teaching English: The Art of TESOL: Selected Articles from the English Teaching Forum, Washington
2. A chapter in an edited book
This can be realised this way:
Bamgbose A. (1971) The English Language in Nigeria, in Spencer J. (ed) The English Language in West Africa. London: Longman.
3. A book by two authors
A book written by two authors will be written in their own way.
Randolph, Q. and Sidney, G. S. (1989) A University Grammar of English. Hong Kong: Longman Group (FE) Ltd.
4. A book by more than two authors
If a book whose authors are more than two, that a book is written by more than two authors, you will write the bibliography this way.
Broughton, Geoffrey et al. (1980). Teaching English as a Foreign Language. London: Routledge and KeganPall Ltd.
5. A paper presented at a conference
If a paper is to be presented at a conference or published, it is important to write its bibliography in this way.
Oniemayin, F. E. (1996). Functional English: Nigerian English or Queen’s English? A paper presented at the 2nd Annual Conference of the National Association of Teachers of English in Colleges of Education and Polytechnics, Kontagora.
6. Unpublished Thesis or Dissertation
At times, you may write a thesis or dissertation that has not been published. This is how you can write a bibliography for them.
Abdulazeez, M. O. (1966). The Implementation of the JSS ELS Syllabus in Kogi State Schools. Unpublished Master’s Dissertation, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
7. Articles in Periodicals and Newspapers
In any periodicals and dailies, such as newspapers, magazines, journals, etc., you can follow this format.
IKECHKWU, O (1991), “Sources of Metaphysical Indigestion (4)” The Guardian Vol. 12, No. 7, 452, pp. 25 June
8. Articles in Encyclopaedia
Any information to contribute to an encyclopaedia should be written and referenced in this way.
DOVELL, J. E. (1991) “Florida” Collier’s Encyclopaedia, Vol. 10, pp. 72-87
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